INTRODUCTION TO MASS MEDIA
5.0. Objective of the lesson:
The objective of this lesson is to assist you in understanding the
- Concept of Mass
- Various types of mass media
Structure of the lesson :
- Introduction to Mass Media
- Some Important Events in the History of Mass Media
- Media Applications
- Forms of Mass Media
- Functions of Mass Media
- Summary
- Technical Terms
- Model Questions
- Refernce Books
Mass media is a term used to denote a section of the media specifically envisioned and designed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state. It was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio, networks, mass-circulation newspapers and magazines, although mass media was present centuries before the term became common. The term public media has a similar meanings: it is the sum of the public mass distributors of news and entertainment across mediums such as newspapers, television, radio, broadcasting, which require union membership in large markets such as Newspaper Guild and AFTRA, & text publishers. The concept of mass media is complicated in some internetmedia as now individuals have a means of potential exposure on a scale comparable to what was previously restricted to select group of mass media producers. These internet media can include personal web pages, podcasts and blogs.
The communications audience has been viewed by some commentators as forming a mass society with special characteristics, notably atomization or lack of social connections, which render it especially sus- ceptible to the influence of modern mass-media techniques such as advertising and propaganda. The term “MSM” or “mainstream media” has been widely used in the blogosphere in discussion of the mass media and media bias.
History
Types of drama in numerous cultures were probably the first mass-media, going back into the Ancient World, The first dated printed book known is the “Diamond Sutra”, printed in China in 868 AD, although it is clear that books were printed earlier. Movable clay type was invented in 1041 in China. However, due to the slow spread to the masses of literacy in China, and the relatively high cost of paper there, the earliest printed mass-medium was probably European popular prints from about 1400. Although these were produced in huge numbers, very few early examples survive, and even most known to be printed before about 1600 have not survived. Johannes Gutenberg printed the first book on a printing press with movable type in1453. This invention transformed the way the world received printed materials, although books remained too expensive really to be called a mass-medium for at least a century after that.
Newspapers developed around from 1605, with the first example in English in 1620; but they took until the nineteenth century to reach a mass-audience directly. Guillium. the 20th century, the growth of mass media was driven by technology that allowed the massive duplication of material. Physical duplication
technologies such as printing, record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences. Radio and television allowed the electronic duplication of information for the first time.
Mass media had the economics of linear replication: a single work could make money proportional to the number of copies sold, and as volumes went up, units costs went down, increasing profit margins further. Vast fortunes were to be made in mass media. In a democratic society, independent media serve to educate the public/electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities. Some consider the concentration of media ownership to be a grave threat to democracy.
In the fifties and early sixties, prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the internet, most com- munication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researches such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Santa Monica, California, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence. The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas.
c1400 : Appearance of European popular prints.
1453 : Johnannes Gutenberg uses his printing press to print the bible, making books freely acceptable to many people during the Renaissance.
1620 : First newspaper (or coranto) in English.
1825 : Nicephore Niepce takes the first permanent photograph. 1876 : First telephone call made by Alexander Graham Bell.
1895 : Cinematograph invented by Auguste and Louis Lumiere.
1896 : Hollerith founds the Tabulating Machine Co. It will become IBM in 1924. 1898 : Loudspeaker is invented.
1902 : Daily Nation is started in Kenya.
1906 : The story of the Kelly Gang from Australia is world’s first feature length film.
1909 : RMS Republic, a palatial White Star passenger liner, uses the Marconi Wireless for a distress at sea. She had been in a collision. This is the first “breaking news” mass media event.
1912 : Air mail begins.
1913 : Edison transfer from cylinder recordings to more easily reproducible discs. 1913 : The portable phonograph is manufactured.
1915 : Radiotelephone carries voice from Virginia to the Eiffel Tower. 1916 : Tunable radios invented.
1919 : Short-wave radio is invented.
1920 : KDKA-AM in Pittsburgh, United States, becoming the world’s first commercial radio station. 1922 : BBC is formed and broadcasting to London.
1924 : KDKA created a short-wave radio transmitter. 1925 : BBC broadcasting to the majority of the UK. 1926 : NBC is formed.
1927 : The Jazz Singer : The first motion picture with sound debuts.
1927 : Philo Taylkor Farnsworth debuts the first electronic television system. 1928 : The Teletype was introduced.
1933 : Edwin Armstrong invents FM Radio.
1935 : First telephone call made around the world.
1936 : BBC opened world’s first regular (then defined as atleast 200 lines) high definition television ser- vice.
1938 : The War of the World is broadcast on October 30, causing mass hysteria. 1939 : Western Union introduces coast-to-coast fax service.
1939 : Regular electronic television broadcasts begin in the US. 1939 : The wire recorder is invented in the US.
1940 : The first commercial television station, WNBT (no WNBT-TV)/New York signs on the air. 1948 : Cable television becomes available in the US.
1951 : The first color televisions go on sale.
1957 : Sputnik is launched and sends back signals from near earth orbit. 1959 : Xerox makes the first copier.
1960 : Echo I, a US ballon in orbit, reflects radio signals to Earth. 1962 : Telstar satellite transmits an image across the Atlantic.
1963 : Audio cassette is invented in the Netherlands. 1963 : Martin Luther King gives “I have a dream” speech. 1965 : Vietnam War becomes first war to be televised.
1967 : Newspapers, magazines start to digitize production.
1969 : Man’s first landing on the moon is broadcast to 600 million people around the globe. 1970 : ARPANET, progenitor to the internet developed.
1971 : Intel debuts the microprocessor.
1972 : Pong becomes the first video game to win widespread popularity.
1975 : The MITS Altair 8800 becomes the first pre-assembled desktop computer available on the market. 1976 : JVC introduces VHS videotape – becomes the standard consumer format in the 1980s & 1990s.
1980 : CNN launches.
1980 : New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones put news database online. 1981 : The IBM PC is introduced on 12 August.
1982 : Philips and Sony put the Compact Disc on the Japanese market. It arrives on the US market early the following year.
1983 : Cellular phones begin to appear. 1984 : Apple Macintosh is introduced. 1985 : CD-ROMs begin to be sold.
1985 : Pay-per-view channels open for business.
1991 : World Wide Web (www) publicly released by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. 1993 : CERN announces that the WWW will be free for anyone to use.
1995 : The Internet grows exponentially.
1996 : First DVD players and discs are available in Japan. Twister is the first on DVD. 1999 : Napster contributes to the popularization of MP3.
2004 : KASSFM a vernacular radio station launched in Nairobi for Kalenjin Community, Rift Valley, Kenya
Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists.
News-oriented journalism is sometimes described as the “first rough draft of history” (attributed to Phil Graham), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organizations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organization’s standards of accurancy, quality and style, Many news organizations claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions account- able to the public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountalbe.
Public relations
Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organization and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image. Examples include.
Corporations use marketing public relations (MPR) to convey information about the products they manu- facture or services they provide to potential customers to support their direct sales efforts. Typically, they support sales in the short and long terms, establishing and burnishing the corporation’s branding for a strong, ongoing market.
Corporations also use public-relations as a vehicle to reach legislators and other politicians, seeking favorable tax, regulatory, and other treatment, and they may use public relations to portray themselves as enlightened employers, in support of human-resources recruiting programs.
Non-profit organizations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs, staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services.
Politicians use public relations to attract votes and raise money, and, when successful at the ballot box, to promote and defend their service in office, with an eye to the next election or, at career’s end, to their legacy.
Electronic media and print media include :
Broadcasting, in the narrow sense, for radio and television.
Various types of discs or tape. In the 20th century, these were mainly used for music. Video and computer uses followed.
Film, most often used for entertainment, but also for documentaries.
Internet, which has many uses and presents both opportunities and challenges. Blogs and podcasts, such as news, music, pre-recorded speech and video)
Computer games, which have developed into a mass form of media since devices such as the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and the Wii broadened their use.
Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals (programs) to a number of recipients (“listen- ers” or “viewers”) that belongs to a large group. This group may be the public in general, or a relatively large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet channel may distribute text or music world-wide, while a public address system in (for example) a workplace may broadcast very limited ad hoc soundbites to a small population within its range.
The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. With all technological endeavours a number of technical terms and slang are developed. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services.
A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs at the same time, through several channels (frequencies), for example BBC One and Two. On the other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble.
When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. In 2004 a new phenom- enon occured when a number of technologies combined to produce podcasting. Podcasting is an asyn- chronous broadcast/narrowcast medium, with one of the main proponents being Adam Curry and his associates the Podshow.
Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting. The term “broadcast” was coined by early radio engineers from the midwestern United States.
Film
Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The origin of the name comes form the fact that photographic film (also called filmstock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures, Many other terms exist – motion pictures (or just pictures or “picture”), the silver screen, photoplays, the cinema, picture shows, flicks – and com- monly movies.
Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using animation techniques and/or special effects. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Flickering between frames is not
seen due to an effect known as persistence of vision – whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what cause the perception of motion; a psychological effect identified as beta movement.
Film is considered by many to be an important art form; film entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and in turn, affect them.
Internet
The Internet (also known simply as “the Net” or “the Web”) can be briefly understood as “a network of networks”. Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer net- works that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections etc.; the Web is collection of interconnected documents, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is accessible via the Internet, along with many other services including e-mailk, file sharing and others described below.
Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which any individual could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media. For the first time. anyone with a web site can address a global audience, although serving to high levels of web traffic is still relatively expensive. It is possible that the rise of peer-to-peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of band width manageable. Although a vast amount of information, imagery, and commentary (i.e. “content”) has been made available, it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in web pages (in many cases, self-published). The invention of the Internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minute. This rapid growth of instantaneous. decentralized communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society. “Cross-media” means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels. A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as “convergence”. Many authors under- stand cross-media publishing to be the ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort. An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective “create once, publish many”.
Publishing
Publishing is the industry concerned with the production of literature or information – the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers.
Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers. With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet, the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites, blogs, and the like.
As a business, publishing includes the development, marketing, production, and distribution of newspa- pers, magazines, books, literary works, musical works, software, other works dealing with information.
Publication is also important as a legal concept; (1) as the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention, for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy, and; (2) as the essential precondition of being able to claim defamation; that is, the alleged libel must have been published.
Book
Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902. A book is a collection of sheets of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also
a literary work or a man division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e- book.
In library and information science, a book is called a monograph to distinguish it from serial publications such as magazines, journals or newspapers. Publishers may products low-cost, pre-proof editions known as galleys or ‘bound proof’s for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publica- tion. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.
A lover of books is usually referred to as a bibliophile, a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a bookworm.
A book may be studied by students in the form of a book report. It may also be covered by a professional writer as a book review to introduce a new book. Some belong to a book club.
Magazine
A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and/or purchase by readers.
Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in color on coated paper, and are bound with a soft cover.
Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals, distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising.
Magazines can be classified as :
General interest magazines (e.g. Frontline, India Today, The Week, etc) Special interest magazines (Women’s Era, Sportstar, Businessline, etc) Newspaper
A selection of newspapers A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however, Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a newspaper’s income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing media.
Software publishing
A software publisher is a publishing company in the software between the developer and the distributor. In some companies, two or all three of these roles may be combined (and indeed, may reside in a single person, especially in the case of shareware).
Software publishers often license software from developers with specific limitations, such as a time limit or geographical region. The terms of licensing very enormously, and are typically secret.
Developers may use publishers to reach larger or foreign markets, or to avoid focussing on marketing. Or publishers may use developers to create software to meet a market need that the publisher has identified.
Video and computer games
A computer game is a computer-controlled game. A video game is a computer game where a video
display such as a monitor or television is the primary feedback device. The term “computer game” also includes games which display only text (and which can therefore theoretically be played on a teletype- writer) or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device, but there are very few new games in these categories. There always must also be some sort of input device, usually in the form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games), a keyboard & mouse/trackball combination (computer games), or a controller (console games), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input. Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of the virtual universe.
The phrase interactive entertainment is the formal reference to computer and video games. To avoid ambiguity, this game software is referred to as “computer and video games” throughout this articles, which explores properties common to both types of game.
In common usage, a “computer game” or a “PC game” refers to a game that is played on a personal computer. “Console game” refers to one that is played on a device specifically designed for the use of such, while interfacing with a standard television set. “Video game” (or “videogame”) has evolved into a catchall phrase that encompasses the aformentioned along with any game made for any other device, including, but not limited to, mobile phones, PDAs, advanced calculations, etc.
Though there are two main functions of mass communication, which are overt and latent functions of communication, six specific functions of the mass media could be identified here. These are.
- Surveiance of the environment : This is the collection and distribution of information within and outside a particular The information flow is necessary for unity and coherence if we live in the society of collectively;
- Correlation of parts of parts of the society : This includes the interpretation of the information, the prescription of conduct and, the comment of social value;
- Transmission of social heritage : By communicating information through the mass media we are transmitting social and cultural values, which aim at sustaining the
- Educating the masses : Education on the policies of government and on the rights and responsibilities could be carried out through the mass
- Entertainment function : The mass media also entertain the public by providing emotional relaxation, intrinsic and cultural enjoyment (i.e. provision of momentary escape from problems) and killing boredom; and
- Mobilization function : This function of the mass media is very important to developing communities It seeks to bring the people together and helps to advance national development.
It could be seen from the foregoing functions that the mass media provide information and education. personal identity, entertainment and most importantly integration and social interaction by giving insight into the circumstances to others as well as by helping with the development of social empathy.
Latest trends in Mass Media – Media Convergence
Media convergence is a theory in communications where every mass medium eventually merges to the point where they become one medium due to the advent of new communication technologies.
According to the theory of media convergence, very soon, there will be no more need for having a televi- sion and a computer separate from each other, since both would be able to do the job of the other, ulti- mately making both extinct and creating a new medium from the synthesis.
As a communication theory, media convergences aims together aims to bring together all forms of media into one single device.
Media convergence really refers to the merging of capabilities of each individual media channel. Technol- ogy is aiding the deletion of individual devices. but this is not what is referred to here. Media convergence is the ability for an increasingly diverse range of content to be delivered through a range of media chan- nels. Unlike the traditional delivery of TV programs through TV, we can now receive TV programs not only on a TV, but also a mobile phone; a computer, an Ipod etc. Convergence is not the reduction of devices but the expansion of channels of content combinations.
With blurring of geographical boundaries, thanks to the distance insensitive Internet, majority of business and individual are becoming part of a high-speed networking fabric which will enable, secure digital communication of voice, data and video to or from anyone, any where and anytime. Till recently, it would have sounded like a chapter straight out of science fiction fortunately, the technology now exists to deliver it. Customers now want to pick and chose from narrow cast and broadcast. They want a fusion of voice, data, and video in all possible mixes. In other words, this means the availability of multiple technology choices to fulfill the customer’s desire for anytime access to people, information, and commerce.
But convergence does not necessarily sound the death knell of age-old-technologies. In fact, it leaves enough room for many technologies to co-exist and one will not replace the other outright. This is because no one technology can meet all the requirements of the market-place. Hence, each technology will find its niche and redefine new and old classes of service and user terminals. In this context one can safely assume that there will be a rash a new user terminals that will let us communicate in ways we dream.
Convergence is the key today. We can think about convergence in several different ways. One is in terms of the actual industries converging, such as communication, entertainment, and computing. Another is converging voice, video, and data over a common infrastructure or with in a common computing platform.
One important factor during convergence is the transformation of the desktop computer through faster processors supporting advanced graphics and multimedia capabilities. The PC today is a collaborative communication and media tool.
Another factor driving convergence is the cost of maintaining three separate networks for voice, video, and data. Corporations graphics and multimedia capabilities. The PC today is a collaborative communication and media tool.
Enterprises are looking at cost savings in the WAN as the first leverage point for convergence. Using Voiceover-Frame Relay, VOIP and Voice-over-ATM the same WAN lines can be used for voice as well as data resulting in substantial cost savings.
Next, enterprises want to install the LAN and WAN infrastructure to do real-time and audio information For education, a professor’s lecture can be delivered to remote campuses live or as stored video-on-demand files on a web sites, Converged networks can also be usedto deliver corporate communications, presenta- tions, and training to employees directly at their desktop.
India On The Threshold Of Convergence
The convergence in India has arrived faster than expected. The convergence would help in web casting, video on demand, internet via cable. The much awaited delivery of Internet through cable network has already started in Delhi and Mumbai.
The optical fiber cable carries more band width resulting in more signals being carried with superior clarity. the cable companies are expected to rule the roost due to investments made by them in the cable net- works. The upgradation of cable network (optical fiber), The MTNL poses tough competition for all the players. As it can pup the broadband network on its exiting network at a very low cost.
The cable operators deliver the cable and satellite channels to the consumers. With more and more channels going pay to air, would open up subscription revenue for the broadcasters. In future it will emerge a major source of revenue and much large than the advertisement revenue stream. the channel will be carried on two platforms – Direct to Operator (DTO) and Direct to Home (DTH). Both the services have user addressability in ear of convergence.
The significance of communication for human life cannot be overestimated. This is true because beyond the physical requirements of food and shelter man needs to communicate with his/her fellow human beings. This urge for communication is a primal one and in our contemporary civilization a necessity for survival. That is to say without communication no society can exist, much less develop and survivie. For the existence as well as the organization of every society communication is a fundamental and vitl pro- cess.
Among the four identified forms of communication is mass communication, which deals with messages addressed from one to many persons mediated by elements in mass media such as radio, television, film, newspaper, magazine, book etc.
Mass communication is the technological means of sending information, ideas and opinions from a mass communicator to a complex audience. It is also defined as comprising the institution and techniques by which specialized groups such as broadcasters, film producers and publishers employ technological devicesto disseminate symbolic content to large heterogeneous and widely disperse audience.
Mass communicators are impersonal. They are part of the institutions they work for and should not be blamed personally for what comes from the institutions. The credibility of the message is not for the individual communicator, but for the institution or the organization that sends it. Thus, mass communica- tion deals with collective sender. For example, a newspaper is not produced by only one person. The newspaper is the end results of collective efforts of reporters, editors, type-setters, proofreaders, design- ers and printers. These must be well-trained persons.
It is, however, sad to admit the mass media have been infiltrated by some unqualified persons as well as some unscrupulous individuals with their own political agendas other than to serve the communities they are supposed to educate, inform, entertain and mobilize for development. Hence, the establishment of media commissions in most democratic and civilized communitiest Institutions and organizations engaged in mass communication anywhere must be weary of such persons.
The other important area of notice is that mass communication deals with the concept of mass audience. Here, there is no common motivation. Audience do not act together. They belong to different classes- different education and socio-economic status. The message communicated in the mass media is open to the public and everyone has access to it provided she/he has the mass communication technological device as well as understands the language in which the message is sent.
Typically mass media include radio, television, newspapers, magazines, internet and films. Books also come under the ambit of mass media. Mass media produce messages for the heterogenous audience who are scattered over a vast geographical region. The production of messages by mass media is an expensive process.
Researchers have enumerated five important functions for mass media. The mass media serves many functions for our society. The five elements the theories put together describe the audience’s use for the media. Surveillance means that the media provides news and information. Correlation means that the media presents the information to us after they select, interpret, and criticize it. The cultural transmission function means that the media reflects our own beliefs, values, and norms. Media also entertains us in our free time and provides an escape from everyday life. Mobilization refers to the media function of promoting society’s interest especially in times of crisis.
Mass communication has a specific method of feed-back which could be in the form of letters to the editor, rejoinders, reviews and articles. This method takes time to go through and it is often volunteered. Not everybody would have the capability to do it. Many people also feel lazy to write.
Mass media : Media that reaches a large heterogenous audience like newspapers, radio, TV, Internet, etc.
Electronic Media : Audio-Visual media like radio, television, Internet, etc.
Print Media : Media that uses written words to communicate like newspapers, books and magazines, etc.
Media convergence : A theory in communications where every mass medium eventually mergers to the point where they become one medium due to the advent of new communication technologies.
- What is mass communication?
- Give examples of various types of mass
- Briefly trace the history of mass
- What are the functions of mass media?
